Genealogy

A Brief History of Marriage
The union of a man and a woman, recognised by authority or ceremony, is as old as civilization itself and marriage of some kind is found in virtually every society. But throughout the centuries marriage has taken many different forms.
Primitive Rites
Early marriage was borne of ancient societies' need to secure a safe environment in which to breed, handle the granting of property rights, and protect bloodlines. Ancient Hebrew law required a man to become the husband of a deceased brother's widow.
But even in these early times, marriage was much about love and desire as it was social and economic stability. In its roundness, the engagement ring, a custom dating back to the Ancient Rome, is believed to represent eternity and everlasting union. It was once believed a vein or nerve ran directly from the 'ring' finger of the left hand to the heart.
Many other modern day marriage traditions have their origins in these ancient times. Newly-weds are said to have aided fertility by drinking a brew made from honey during certain lunar phases and it is this tradition from which we derive the origins of the word 'honeymoon'.
One wife or two?
Understanding of marriage contrasted greatly from culture to culture. Some cultures viewed the institution as endogamous (men were required to marry within their own social group, family, clan, or tribe), exogamous (marrying outside the geographical region or social group) or polygamous (allowing men to take more than one bride).
Polygamy was formally banned towards the end of the Roman Empire with laws against adultery, fornication and other relationships outside a monogamous lifelong covenant. The seeds of modern marriage were sowed here and they extended into the modern Western world.
In holy matrimony
In European nations, marriage was traditionally considered a civil institution. Around 5AD great Christian theologians such as Augustine wrote about marriage and the Christian Church started taking an interest in the ceremony.
It was at this point that Christians began to have their marriages conducted by ministers in Christian gatherings, but it was in the 12th century that the Roman Catholic Church formally defined marriage as a sacrament, sanctioned by God.
In Catholicism, it is still believed that the Sacrament of Matrimony is between God, the man and the woman, while the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century CE re-valued marriage as a merely life-long and monogamous covenant between a man and a woman.
Victorian Courtship
During the Victorian era romantic love became viewed as the primary requirement for marriage and the rituals of courting became even more formal. An interested gentleman could not simply walk up to a young lady and begin a conversation. He had to be formally introduced and only after some time was considered appropriate for a man to speak to a lady or for a couple to be seen together.
Once formally introduced, if a gentleman wished to escort a lady home from a social function he would present his card to her and at the end of the evening the lady would review her options and chose who would be her escort! She would then notify the lucky gentleman by giving him her own card requesting that he escort her home.

Almost all courting took place in the girl's home, always under the eye of watchful parents. If the courting progressed, the couple might advance to the front porch. It was also rare for couples to see each other without the presence of a chaperone, and marriage proposals were frequently written.
The end of the affair
Divorce has existed for about as long as marriage so although we've had a lot of practice at monogamy, we're still not very good at it!
The ancient Greeks liberally allowed divorce, but even then the person requesting divorce had to submit the request to a magistrate, who would determine whether or not the reasons given were sufficient. In contrast divorce was rare in early Roman culture. However, as the empire grew in power and authority, civil law embraced the idea that either usband or wife could renounce the marriage at will.
Throughout the last thousand years, divorce was generally frowned upon and from the earliest years of the Christian age the only 'proper' way to dissolve a marriage was by annulment - a status that was granted only by the Church. Of course, one British king changed all that during the Sixteenth Century by having arguably the most famous divorce in British history.
In 1533 Henry VIII famously broke England's ties with the Catholic Church and changed the face of our nation forever purely because he wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn.
Bizarre traditions
# In many parts of 16th and 17th century Europe and America, the concept of 'bundling' was widely used. This process allowed courting couples to share a bed, fully clothed with a 'bundling board' to separate them. This allowed a pair to talk and get to know each other in the safe confines of the girl's house.
# In some parts of 18th Century Europe a biscuit or small loaf of bread was broken over the head of the bride as she came out from the church. Unmarried guests scrambled for the pieces, and they would place them under their pillows to aid their own fortunes in marriage. It is believed that the tradition of having a wedding cake stems from this strange custom.

Genealogy

A Brief History of Marriage
The union of a man and a woman, recognised by authority or ceremony, is as old as civilization itself and marriage of some kind is found in virtually every society. But throughout the centuries marriage has taken many different forms.
Primitive Rites
Early marriage was borne of ancient societies' need to secure a safe environment in which to breed, handle the granting of property rights, and protect bloodlines. Ancient Hebrew law required a man to become the husband of a deceased brother's widow.
But even in these early times, marriage was much about love and desire as it was social and economic stability. In its roundness, the engagement ring, a custom dating back to the Ancient Rome, is believed to represent eternity and everlasting union. It was once believed a vein or nerve ran directly from the 'ring' finger of the left hand to the heart.
Many other modern day marriage traditions have their origins in these ancient times. Newly-weds are said to have aided fertility by drinking a brew made from honey during certain lunar phases and it is this tradition from which we derive the origins of the word 'honeymoon'.
One wife or two?
Understanding of marriage contrasted greatly from culture to culture. Some cultures viewed the institution as endogamous (men were required to marry within their own social group, family, clan, or tribe), exogamous (marrying outside the geographical region or social group) or polygamous (allowing men to take more than one bride).
Polygamy was formally banned towards the end of the Roman Empire with laws against adultery, fornication and other relationships outside a monogamous lifelong covenant. The seeds of modern marriage were sowed here and they extended into the modern Western world.
In holy matrimony
In European nations, marriage was traditionally considered a civil institution. Around 5AD great Christian theologians such as Augustine wrote about marriage and the Christian Church started taking an interest in the ceremony.
It was at this point that Christians began to have their marriages conducted by ministers in Christian gatherings, but it was in the 12th century that the Roman Catholic Church formally defined marriage as a sacrament, sanctioned by God.
In Catholicism, it is still believed that the Sacrament of Matrimony is between God, the man and the woman, while the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century CE re-valued marriage as a merely life-long and monogamous covenant between a man and a woman.
Victorian Courtship
During the Victorian era romantic love became viewed as the primary requirement for marriage and the rituals of courting became even more formal. An interested gentleman could not simply walk up to a young lady and begin a conversation. He had to be formally introduced and only after some time was considered appropriate for a man to speak to a lady or for a couple to be seen together.
Once formally introduced, if a gentleman wished to escort a lady home from a social function he would present his card to her and at the end of the evening the lady would review her options and chose who would be her escort! She would then notify the lucky gentleman by giving him her own card requesting that he escort her home.

Almost all courting took place in the girl's home, always under the eye of watchful parents. If the courting progressed, the couple might advance to the front porch. It was also rare for couples to see each other without the presence of a chaperone, and marriage proposals were frequently written.
The end of the affair
Divorce has existed for about as long as marriage so although we've had a lot of practice at monogamy, we're still not very good at it!
The ancient Greeks liberally allowed divorce, but even then the person requesting divorce had to submit the request to a magistrate, who would determine whether or not the reasons given were sufficient. In contrast divorce was rare in early Roman culture. However, as the empire grew in power and authority, civil law embraced the idea that either usband or wife could renounce the marriage at will.
Throughout the last thousand years, divorce was generally frowned upon and from the earliest years of the Christian age the only 'proper' way to dissolve a marriage was by annulment - a status that was granted only by the Church. Of course, one British king changed all that during the Sixteenth Century by having arguably the most famous divorce in British history.
In 1533 Henry VIII famously broke England's ties with the Catholic Church and changed the face of our nation forever purely because he wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn.
Bizarre traditions
# In many parts of 16th and 17th century Europe and America, the concept of 'bundling' was widely used. This process allowed courting couples to share a bed, fully clothed with a 'bundling board' to separate them. This allowed a pair to talk and get to know each other in the safe confines of the girl's house.
# In some parts of 18th Century Europe a biscuit or small loaf of bread was broken over the head of the bride as she came out from the church. Unmarried guests scrambled for the pieces, and they would place them under their pillows to aid their own fortunes in marriage. It is believed that the tradition of having a wedding cake stems from this strange custom.

Ancient Britain

Viking facts: The sea raiders

Regarded as murderous barbarians, the Vikings dominated Northern Europe from AD850-1100. But these expert mariners were also great explorers and traders.
Origins
The Vikings originated from what is now modern Scandinavia and were primarily farmers and traders. It is thought that they invaded Europe in
large numbers because of overcrowding in their homelands.
Improvements in boat design allowed them to travel further afield.

What's in a name?
The word 'Viking' has several possible origins. The Old Norse word 'vik', for example, means a bay or inlet. 'Vik' may also come from the Old English word 'wic', which derives from the Latin 'vicus', meaning a camp or trading settlement.

Longships
Light, fast and able to ride out storms, Viking longships were the peak of early medieval boat design, equally at home on the open sea as on rivers. Powered by a large sail or by banks of oars such vessels carried up to 200 warriors on long-distance raids or explorations.

Raiding
A longship's shallow draught enabled it to be sailed close inshore or up rivers, deep inland. This allowed the Vikings to raid any part of Northern Europe, seizing goods and slaves. Contemporary chronicles reflect the terror such hit and run attacks inspired.

Trading
Trade was as important as warfare to the Vikings and their merchants travelled as far as the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic World, Persia and India. Their main trade routes included the rivers Dnieper and Volga in Eastern Europe and Russia.

Settling down
Viking raids in England were so successful they were able to colonise much of the north and east of the country as well as western Scottish islands and parts of Ireland. In 911, the King of France gave a Viking leader, Rollo, and his followers a large area of land - it became known as Normandy.

The first explorers
Longships enabled the Vikings to reach and settle Iceland and Greenland and explore the long, dangerous rivers of Russia. Archaeological evidence suggests that after AD1000 the Vikings even reached North America.

Religion
The Vikings were particularly feared because they were not Christians. They honoured a number of pagan gods led by Odin, lord of the Slain, Thor, god of Thunder, and Frey, the fertility god. By the 11th century, however, most Vikings had converted to Christianity.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt: Timelime

The story of ancient Egypt is more than three thousand years' worth of kings and queens. It's a rollercoaster ride that underpinned much of what we take for granted in our own civilisation. Track the major periods in Egypt's development with this timeline.
The Ancient Egyptian Calendar
Ancient Egyptians did not calculate the date according to a continuous calendar. Instead, they used a scheme based on the reigns of their pharaohs. Thus, a particular date might be written: "Year 12 of the reign of Ramesses II". Reconciling this dynastic dating with our own system inevitably throws up different interpretations. Therefore, all dates before 664 BC - when events can be cross-referenced with other classical sources - should be regarded as approximate.
Early Dynastic Period (c. 3000 BC – 2686 BC)
The pre-dynastic Nile Valley and Delta region was made up of independent city-states, each with a number of satellite towns and villages. The building blocks for a state were in place: agriculture, thanks to the Nile's annual flooding of the surrounding plains; early hieroglyphic writing; and relatively sophisticated artistic expression. But there was no concept of "Egypt" until a southern king, Narmer, conquered and unified these states around 3,000 BC. Narmer's successor, Aha, founded Egypt's 1st Dynasty.
Old Kingdom (2686 BC – 2160 BC)
By the beginning of the Old Kingdom, Egypt had become more centralised and was ruled from Memphis, near modern Cairo. A tradition of near-divine rule by omnipotent pharaohs was established, leading to a period of relatively stable government that lasted half a millennium. The burial rites and entombment of these revered rulers became increasingly sophisticated. When the 3rd Dynasty pharaoh, Djoser, gave the groundbreaking order to construct the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt was well on the way to becoming one of the world's great ancient civilisations. Once the Great Pyramids were built, a century or so later, that status was beyond dispute.

DNA used to identify WWI one soldier

Genetic profiling has been used to identify the body of a soldier killed in the First World War.
The remains of a soldier who fought and died in the First World War have been identified using the latest DNA technology.

Private Jack Hunter was 29-years-old when he died on the battlefield at Passchendaele in the arms of his younger brother Jim and his body has now been recovered 90 years after he fell, having been found by workers laying a gas pipeline in Westhoek, near Ypres, last year.

Jim Hunter buried his brother in a shallow grave on the front line and searched for the place he laid his brother to rest until he died in 1977 at the age of 86, the Telegraph reports.

One of the first soldiers to be identified using groundbreaking genetic profiling techniques, Jack Hunter will now be buried with full military honours at a war cemetery in Belgium. Private Hunter's 81-year-old Mollie Millis will attend the service having provided her DNA for the profiling.

Hundreds of casualties of war are expected to be identified using DNA techniques, with thousands of soldiers still missing from the First World War. A mass grave unearthed near Lille this year contained the bodies of 239 British and 160 Australian soldiers.

The British government has started to collect DNA samples from the relatives of missing soldiers and the US military has carried out a similar programme since 1992, storing blood samples from relatives of soldiers lost in World War II, the Cold War, Korea and Southeast Asia at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in Maryland.

Sharpe

Sharpe

Brought to life on screen by Sean Bean, maverick soldier Richard Sharpe has thrilled millions with his historical escapades. So how did the swashbuckling character come into being? Here's some facts from the Sharpe end...
The Cornwell connection
Bernard Cornwell, the author of the Sharpe saga, was born in London in 1944. Bernard's father was a Canadian airman, whilst his mother was English and a member of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force. The pair decided to give Bernard up for adoption and young Cornwell was brought up in Essex by a family belonging to a strict Protestant sect.
After graduating from university, Bernard began working for the BBC as a television director where he met and married Judy, an American. Re-locating with her to the USA, Cornwell was unable to get a Green Card. His solution? He began writing novels, as it didn't require a work permit. Sharpe was born
What's in a name?
Cornwell admits his greatest challenge was finding the right name for his hero. Having temporarily named him after Richard Sharp, the famous rugby player, he found that the name stuck. In the end, Bernard simply added an 'e' to the end.
Sharpe meets Mr Bean
It's the general consensus that Sharpe's on-screen charm is largely due to the brilliant Sean Bean. Cornwell agrees: "Sharpe's greatest stroke of good fortune was meeting Sean". Sean wasn't actually the first choice for the role, but stepped into Paul McGann's shoes after an accident stopped Paul from taking the part. The Sheffield born actor soon made the part his own. Cornwell now concedes: "When I write Sharpe these days, I hear Sean's voice".
Life imitating art
Sean owes Sharpe a slice of his lovelife. He met and married Abigail Cruttenden, his on-set wife, Jane Sharpe. The couple married on November 22, 1997 at Hendon Registry Office in London. Their daughter, Evie Natasha was born a year later on November 6, 1998. Sadly, the pair divorced in 2000. Sean also has two other daughters, Molly and Lorna by actress Melanie Hill.
I'll be back
Cornwell jokes that Sharpe has "more lives than a basketful of cats" but due to popular demand he's still writing more Sharpe adventures.
Seven years after the final instalment, Sharpe's Waterloo, the production company released a statement confirming the rumours that Sharpe would be back: "Sean Bean and ourselves really felt that we had made the last Sharpe. But we now find ourselves missing our favourite production and Sean is certainly very happy to come back on board." Sharpe's Challenge was shot in late 2005 on location in Jaipur, India.
Did you know?
# The first Sharpe book was started in London and finished in New Jersey
# Sean Bean's real name is Shaun Mark Bean
# In 'Sharpe's Honour', 1994, the horseback accident is real! Sharpe and the Marquesa Dorada fall off a horse mid-gallop. Director Tom Clegg kept the shot. How's that for authenticity?
# Liz Hurley appeared in 'Sharpe's Enemy' as Lady Farthingdale.
# Sean has one distinguishing Sharpe-like trait: a scar above his eye. Sean acquired the scar whilst filming 'Patriot Games' with Harrison Ford.